Planning Function of Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Planning Function of Management - Essay Example Introduction Before going to evaluate the planning function of an oilfield company, let us get a better understanding of what planning actually is. Planning is one of the core functions of management. â€Å"Planning involves selecting company goals and department objectives, then finding ways of implementing them† (Hahn, 2011). Proper planning by the managers provides a number of benefits to their organizations, such as, avoidance of confusions, reduction of risks, improved production services, completion of tasks within deadlines, and correct use of all available resources. Let us discuss planning function of management in some detail in order to know the role that it plays in the success of a company 2. Name of the Selected Company The company whose planning function we are going to evaluate is Schlumberger, which is an oilfield company. Employing over 110,000 employees from different parts of the world, Schlumberger is the world’s biggest oilfield services providing company. Schlumberger is a provider of different products and services to the energy sector of different countries. Some of the core business operations of this company include managing geological data, locating hydrocarbons, construction of the wells, drilling, and managing lifecycle of the reservoirs. 3. Planning Function For the managers at Schlumberger, planning holds great importance in all processes of management. â€Å"At this stage, the company is given an objective† (Spindler, 2008). Planning means to recognize organizational goals and to develop proper strategies to meet those goals. Planning not only includes setting goals for the future but also includes development of tactics and strategies to meet those goals. Wijesinghe (2010) states, â€Å"Planning requires administration to assess; where the company is presently set, and where it would be in the upcoming†. Managers at Schlumberger firmly believe that they cannot achieve desired goals without doing prop er planning based on the analysis of facts and figures. Moreover, they also develop separate plans for different business operations. The reason is that every operation has a different set of requirements, so different type of planning needs to be done in the beginning of any specific operation to complete the operation successfully. Rothbauer-Wanish (2009) states, â€Å"Planning may take time in the beginning, but it saves time and reduces difficulties that may occur in the future†. 3.1 Types of Planning For proper planning, managers consider many factors, such as, availability of resources, assessment of organizational environment, future trends of the oil and gas industry, assessment of industrial demands, and proper use of capital. At Schlumberger, managers need to do different types of planning to. Some of those types of planning include marketing planning, construction planning, production planning, and project planning. Marketing planning means to develop appropriate s trategies for the marketing of the company’s products and services. For marketing planning, Schlumberger’s managers consider 4Ps of the marketing mix to develop a proper marketing plan. For construction planning, managers consider different aspects of a project to develop a plan for that project. Some of the major aspects, which managers consider, include site of the project, needs of the client firm, geological survey, and feasibility of the project. Production managers also do proper planning to enhance production services, such as, pipeline process services, well intervention

Human Resource Management - Learning Assignment

Human Resource Management - Learning - Assignment Example In order to understand these new needs, and fit the support systems to the business context, HR professionals need to be part of the planning process right from the start. The strategy that a company adopts has to be deliverable, and the contribution of HR can make sure that the whole organization is geared up to match strategic objectives, using tools like rewards systems, orientation programs, working time arrangements and many others. If strategic planning and HR are separate, then a gap can develop which hampers progress towards corporate objectives. If HR is involved in strategic planning then employees can be sure that details such as the terms of their contracts and the working arrangements in their teams have been put together in alignment with company objectives. There is consistency across the board when points of debate or contention arise, and employees are less likely to be caught between conflicting messages. HR can serve as a useful channel for information to flow from the very top of the organization to the very bottom, and across the whole width of different departments or sections. The organization is therefore bonded together more fully. This means employee views are heard and their concerns can be fed into all processes at all stages. Sensitive processes like down-sizing are likely to run much more smoothly and fairly when HR considerations have been included in the planning stage. Management directives and core corporate values are much more likely to be adopted if HR has influenced their formation and implement ation (Williams, 2010). 3 What do you think are the risks involved (to HR and the organization as a whole) if HR does not make this a priority and instead remains a purely task-oriented department mostly administrative in nature? If HR remains a task-oriented department it will more than likely find itself in

HCI Reading Journal - Journal #3 Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

HCI Reading Journal - Journal #3 - Research Paper Example According to Heim (2008), this can be done by putting oneself in the user’s shoes to be able to understand their needs and requirements. Secondly, know the users for which the interface is intended. By studying them, you will be able to develop a seamless interface that adequately meets the user needs. Since my project involves creating a user interface for a sales system, I saw it prudent to visit some of the sites. As a user of this interface I found it so easy to choose a product after some suggestions such as; most viewed, most purchased, don’t miss, most popular among other suggestive tags. From this I learnt that items with suggestive tags will have a high chance of being viewed and even purchased. Therefore, as a user interface designer, one must consider the possibility of aggregating related content in one interface to ease navigation of the user (Dillon, 2003). Most users will seldom dwell on the layout and the structure of the interface but will go straight to the content. According to Dillon (2003), in order to effectively engage users of an interface, the designer must get the content of the interface right. One could have a perfect design for an interface with shallow content that will not effectively the client. Design is a magnet but the content is what keeps the user coming back again and again. I tried to compare between the design interface for two social sites; Face book and Twitter. Face book has a more interactive interface that has options for posts, messages, image and video communication. On the other hand twitter is simple with fewer graphic but more messaging. However, despite the differences the two sites have almost equal users due to the content in each interface. Most designers will think users have no idea or will not realize several aspects of the user interface. This is not the case in the current society. Users visit several sites and interact with man interfaces on a daily basis. In this

Our Babies, Ourselves Essay Example for Free

Our Babies, Ourselves Essay Dependence during infancy is unique amongst hominids compared to other beings. However, different cultures in the world differ on how they cater to this dependency. For example, the American culture is influenced by individualism, therefore they tend to rear their children in such a way that they will grow up as an independent individual. On the other hand, Japanese are likely to be more affectionate in their child upbringing culture. And on both instances, infants who were reared up the American or Japanese way, their anticipated adult traits remain to be visible. As the article â€Å"Our Babies, Ourselves† suggests, the care given to an infant during his most dependent stage is reflected when the infant grows up and he develops his own sense of independence and survival skills. The rearing up process, whether an individual is being given over adequate attention or being least assisted during infancy is reflected by his developed reflexes and skills in his grown up stage. For the Gusii child-rearing practices, infants were held closer to their parents compared to other cultures. Here, infants develop a closer bond to their mothers, and later on towards other children to develop their interpersonal skills better. Moreover, apart from the physical and emotional aspects of development, neurological and genetic developments of infants are also being attributed to their rearing up practices. Thus, the uniqueness developed by an individual regarding his skills, competencies and survival instincts is defined by infant care that was rendered to him by his parents. However, the rearing up process is highly shaped and influenced by traditions within a culture, thus creating cross-cultural differences when it comes to child development across different nations and races.

The Important Features of a Mosque :: Papers

The Important Features of a Mosque Possibly one of the most important aspects of the Islam religion is the Mosque, which means "place of prayer". This is seen as the centre of the Islamic community and is where Muslims join together to worship Allah, pray, and learn about the religion. Also, weddings, festival celebrations, and meetings of the Muslim community are held there. On the outside, many Mosques are plain and not elaborate at all although, it is not wrong for them to be grand. They are usually rectangular in shape and two features of them would be the dome and minarets. The dome is situated on the top of the roof and symbolises the universe. A minaret is a tall tower and every Mosque must have at least one. From here the adhan, call to prayer, is called by the mu'adhin. Most modern minarets have loudspeakers to drown out the noise of traffic, etc. The adhan is translated as: "Allah is most great, Allah is most great. Allah is most great, Allah is most great. I testify that there is no god except Allah. I testify that there is no god except Allah. I testify that Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah. I testify that Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah. Come to prayer! Come to prayer! Come to success (in the life and the Hereafter)! Come to success! Allah is most great. Allah is most great. There is no god except Allah. (Morning prayer) Prayer is better than sleep. Prayer is better than sleep." The times that adhan is made is set by the sun. The first is made at dawn, the second after the sun has passed the peak, the third mid afternoon, the fourth after sunset, and the fifth when night begins. Inside the Mosque, as a mark of cleanliness and respect, shoes must be removed. Before praying, Muslims must wash in a special way called Wudu, which they were commanded to do by Muhammad. This makes them clean for prayer as they are about worship and be in close presence

Neurophysiology Study Guide

Neurophysiology Study Guide 1. Define â€Å"equilibrium potential†. Why is the resting potential closer to the potassium equilibrium potential (EK+) than the sodium potential (ENa+)? The equilibrium potential is the point at which the force exerted on an ion by electrostatic and concentration gradient forces are balanced, and there is no net movement of that ion. The resting potential is closer to EK+ than ENa+ because the cell membrane is more permeable to potassium than sodium. 2. How would ENa+ change following an increase in the external concentration of sodium?Would the resting potential be affected significantly? If the external concentration of sodium was increased, the concentration gradient driving the movement of sodium would be increased more sodium would diffuse into the cell and would reduce some of the negative charge on the inner surface of the lipid bilayer. This would serve to decrease (make less negative) the resting potential, but would not affect it signifi cantly since the membrane is much more permeable to K. 3. Does any net Ionic current flow at the resting potential?What are the relationships among â€Å"passive† and â€Å"pump†ionic currents at the resting potential? There is no net ionic current flow at the resting potential. However, since neither Na+ nor K+ is at equilibrium, there is a net flow of each across the membrane. The Na-K pump generates the concentration difference that sustains the resting potential: but it is the passive ionic flow that creates the resting potential. Pump currents balance passive currents (diffusion) at the resting potential. 3. Define â€Å"electrogenic† and â€Å"neutral† pumps.What role does the Na-K pump play in the resting potential? An electrogenic pump creates a potential difference across the membrane – positive and negative charges are not transported across the membrane in equal amounts. Neutral pumps are balanced according to charge – there is no potential difference created. The Na-K pump generates the concentration difference that sustains the resting potential. 5. Describe the sequence of ionic events and their effect upon the resting potential following lockade of the Na-K pump, or following an increase in extracellular potassium or sodium. When the Na-K pump is blocked by an agent such as oubain or digitalis, Na+ and K+ will continue to diffuse passively across the cell membrane down their respective gradients. After a while, intracellular [Na] will increase and intracellular [K] will decrease. The reduced [K] gradient will reduce K efflux through nongated channels; therefore, the resting potential will depolarize. The reduced [Na] gradient will have little effect on the resting potential.If extracellular [K+ ] is increased, the driving force for potassium diffusion out of the cell will decrease, and the resting potential will become less negative (depolarized). If extracellular [Na+ ] is increased, the driving force f or sodium movement into the cell will increase with a resultant slight depolarization, but there will be no significant change in resting potential. Na+ -K+ ATPase pump activity Y [[Na+]in Y [Na+]O/ [Na+]i Y ENa+ Y (EM – ENa+) Y INa+ Y Conduction velocity and Depolarized threshold 6.Explain the interrelationships between ionic and capacitive currents during postsynaptic potentials or during an action potential. Ionic current is the flow of ions through channels into or out of the cell. Capacitive current is the movement of charges, usually positive, up to or away from the cell membrane. During an excitatory postsynaptic potential or an action potential, there is an initial ionic current flow into the cell, followed by a capacitive current out of the cell, which serves to depolarize the membrane potential at a distance. The current loop forms a â€Å"local circuit. † 7.Define â€Å"time constant†. How is it calculated and why is it important for integration of electrical activity at the axon's initial segment? The time constant is the amount of time it takes for EM (membrane potential) to decay to 1/e of its initial strength (37%). It is equal to resistance times capacitance. It is important for integration at the initial segment because it determines whether temporal summation can take place – a long time constant means slow decay which allows summation to occur; a short time constant means fast decay, and therefore no summation. 8. Define â€Å"length constant'.How does it depend upon axon diameter, axial resistance and membrane resistance; what does it suggest about the relative effectiveness of synapses on the soma versus synapses on the dendrites? The length (or space) constant is the distance that a signal can travel before falling to 1/e (37%) of its initial magnitude. It is proportional to the square root of the diameter of the fiber and to membrane resistance, and inversely proportional to axial resistance. The higher the membrane resistance, the farther the signal will go. The larger the length constant, the slower the signal decay.This suggests that synapses on the soma are more likely to undergo spatial summation than dendritic synapses. 9. Define â€Å"graded potentials†. How do these differ from action potentials? A graded potential is one in which the amplitude is directly proportional to the magnitude of the stimulus. It has no refractory period and is a local potential – i. e. it is not actively conducted and spreads only passively. Graded potentials can be either depolarizing or hyperpolarizing and can add. Action potentials cannot add, have refractory periods are all or none, and are propagated actively. 0. Explain the shape of a â€Å"strength duration† curve. Define â€Å"rheobase† and â€Å"chronaxie† The shape of the strength-duration curve shows that initiation of an action potential is dependent on both the amplitude and the duration of a stimulus. Rheobase is the minimum effective stimulus strength. Chronaxie is the duration of the stimulus that is required to just reach threshold when the stimulus amplitude is twice rheobase. 11. Explain in detail how an action potential is generated. What types of channels tend to open as the membrane potential depolarizes?Draw a graph illustrating how sodium and potassium conductances change (with time) during an action potential. When the membrane is depolarized, voltage sensitive Na+ channels open allowing Na+ to enter the cell down its electrochemical gradient This entry of Na+ further depolarizes the cell, resulting in the opening of more Na+ channels: thus allowing more Na+ to enter, and so on. When the influx of Na+ exceeds the efflux of K+ , threshold is exceeded and the response becomes regenerative, leading to the depolarizing or rising phase of the action potential.After a period of time the Na+ channels inactivate and close: blocking further entry of Na+ through these channels. Also after a delay, voltage-sensitive K+ channels open, allowing K+ to leave the cell, traveling down its electrochemical gradient. The inactivation of the Na+ channels coupled with the opening of the K+ channels result in the repolarization of the membrane potential 12. How do the time courses of sodium and potassium conductances differ during a maintained depolarization? A maintained depolarization causes Na+ inactivation (reduces PNa+) and hence increases (depolarizes) the threshold potential.In addition, compared with the Na+ activation process, the K+ activation process (increased PK+ ) is delayed and persists as long as the depolarization is maintained. 13. Define â€Å"sodium inactivation†. How does it explain the â€Å"absolute† and â€Å"relative† refractory periods, or â€Å"accommodation†? How do potassium ions play a role in these processes? What limits a neuron's maximum rate of firing? There are two ‘gates' on the voltage gated sodium channels. As the membrane is depolarized, sodium channels open. When the membrane is fully depolarized, sodium channels become inactivated.Sodium inactivation is high at the peak of the action potential and is maximal about the time that the repolarization phase intersects the zero potential. It is this process and the fact that most potassium channels are open that account for the absolute refractory period. The relative refractory period is the gradual recovery of Na+ channels from the inactivation process. Accommodation is also related to sodium inactivation because a slow depolarization will cause the Na+ channels to go directly from the closed state to the inactivated state. A neuron’s maximum rate of firing is limited by the absolute refractory period. 4. What role does the Na+ -K+ pump play in the action potential? How is the action potential affected by alterations in the concentration of extracellular Na+ or K+ Action potentials arise from the passive movement of ion s down their electrochemical gradients. The Na+-K+ pump creates the electrochemical gradients that sustain the resting potential and generate the action potential. Alterations in the concentration of extracellular K+ will cause fluctuations in the resting potential that will decrease or increase the likelihood of an action potential being generated.Alterations of extracellular Na will increase or decrease the conduction velocity of action potentials as well as the likelihood of an action potential being generated. 15. Explain the mechanism for propagation of an action potential in an unmyelinated nerve or in a myelinated nerve. Why is the latter much faster? What factors affect conduction velocity? Once an action potential has been initiated, the inward Na+ current depolarizes the membrane toward ENa+ . This results in a potential difference between this active region and the adjacent inactive region, which is still near EK+ .Hence, current will flow between the active and adjacent inactive region, depolarizing the inactive region. The resulting increase in intracellular Na+ leads to an outward capacitive current and depolarization of this region of membrane. When the depolarization reaches threshold, an action potential will be initiated in this region of the membrane. In an unmyelinated nerve, this is a continual process moving down the membrane. In a myelinated nerve, this process occurs only at the node of Ranvier. Myelinated nerves have faster conduction velocities because the action potential â€Å"jumps' from node to node, which may be up to 2 mm apart.Conduction velocity is affected by membrane capacitance and by membrane and axoplasm resistances. Myelin increases membrane resistance, thereby constraining incoming positive charge to move down the axon. Myelin reduces membrane capacitance; this reduces the amount of negative charge that must be neutralized to reach threshold. Axoplasm resistance is inversely proportional to axon diameter. Thus, conduct ion velocity increases with fiber diameter,. 16. Describe the process of â€Å"saltatory† conduction. Why is it advantageous? Explain how and why conduction velocity and the length (space) constant are affected by demyelinating iseases. Saltatory conduction is the discontinuous propagation (jumping from one node of Ranvier to the next) of an action potential along a myelinated nerve. Saltatory conduction arises in part from the properties of the myelin sheath, which increases the membrane resistance and decreases the capacitance in the internodal region; the result is an increase in current flow down the core of the axon. In addition the voltage-sensitive Na+ channels responsible for the generation of the action potential are localized only at the nodes.This type of conduction makes possible rapid precise control of muscle contraction. In demyelinating diseases conduction velocity and the length constant are reduced in the unmyelinated areas. The length constant is proportion al to membrane resistance and when the myelin is destroyed, the resistance at that point decreases and therefore the length constant decreases. Because of increase capacitance and negative charge on the inner surface of the membranes, propagation of the signal takes place continuously instead of jumping from node to node; therefore, conduction velocity is decreased. 7. What are the three functions of a sensory receptor? 1) Transduction of the environmental signal Energy Y Change in membrane potential 2) Amplification of the environmental signal 3) Transmission of the environmental signal to the CNS 18. How does a â€Å"receptor potential† or â€Å"generator potential† differ from an action potential? A receptor or generator potential is a graded potential that is proportional to the stimulus. It is not a function of the membrane potential and thus is not regenerative like an action potential.It has no refractory period and, therefore, is additive. It is â€Å"localâ⠂¬  and propagated. Finally, the ion channels producing the receptor/generator potentials are different from those underlying the action potential; they are not voltage gated. 19. Explain how an action potential is initiated in a sensory nerve. What conditions are necessary for repetitive firing? How does the firing frequency depend upon the amplitude of the generator potential? Upon the intensity of the stimulus? A sensory nerve action potential begins with the receipt of an appropriate environmental signal.The stimulus causes a localized increase in the permeability of the nerve terminal to Na+ . The resulting net inward positive ionic current depolarizes the nerve terminal. This current spreads passively along the axon terminal producing a depolarizing outward capacitive current The outward capacitive current, in turn. may induce an action potential in a region of the nerve with a low threshold for generating an action potential- usually at the first node of Ranvier in myelinate d nerves. A maintained stimulus is necessary for repetitive firing.The firing frequency is proportional to the amplitude of the generator potential and the intensity of the stimulus. 19. Define â€Å"sensory adaptation†. Name two classes of receptors. What type of information about the stimulus is derived from each? Give examples. Sensory adaptation is the decline in response that occurs over time when a receptor is subjected to a constant stimulus. There are two types of receptor classifications: slowly adapting (tonic) receptors and rapidly adapting (phasic) receptors. Slowly adapting receptors provide information about the rate of change of a stimulus as well as the magnitude and duration.This type of receptor is seen in touch, pressure, hair cells for hearing and vestibular function, muscle spindle receptors, Golgi tendon organs and in baroreceptors. Rapidly adapting receptors are unable to maintain a sustained depolarization, despite sustained stimulation. They function as rate-detectors providing information about the rate of change of the environmental signal. Rapidly adapting receptors are found in the Pacinian corpuscles and skin hair receptors. 19. Describe in detail the steps involved in the release and degradation of ACh at the neuromuscular junction. What factors regulate how much ACh is released?Chemical synaptic transmission is initiated by a depolarization of the presynaptic element and the subsequent influx of Ca++ ions into the nerve terminal through voltage-dependent Ca++ channels. Ca++ facilitates contact of synaptic vesicles with the terminal membrane, which triggers the synchronous release of several thousands of transmitter molecules into the synaptic cleft. The ACh binds to its receptor on the postsynaptic membrane. After dissociating from the receptor, ACh is degraded by acetylcholinesterase (produced by ) 19. Define â€Å"quantal† release and â€Å"miniature† end-plate potential.How are the two related? Quantal r elease refers to the release of neurotransmitters in discrete packets or vesicles. A single vesicle contains about 5-10,000 ACh molecules, and is capable of depolarizing the membrane about 1mV. The small depolarization caused by the spontaneous release of a few vesicles is called a miniature end plate potential. Spontaneous release of vesicles occurs at a rate of about 1/sec. MEPP's may be important in maintaining the integrity of the muscle fiber. 19. Discuss the â€Å"end-plate† potential (EPP), including its characteristics and underlining mechanisms.Why are its amplitude and duration limited? How does it differ from an action potential? The end-plate potential is the postsynaptic potential produced at motor end plate. The EPP occurs as the result of ACh binding to its receptors on end-plate membrane and opening the chemically gated channels located there. The EPP is a graded potential – the magnitude of the EPP is proportional to the number of channels opened by AC h – and spreads only passively. The EPP acts as a stimulus for the production of an action potential on the muscle membrane contiguous to the end-plate membrane.The amplitude and duration of the EPP may be limited by the amount of neurotransmitter released, or by the number of receptors present, or by the normal activity of AChEase. The EPP differs from an action potential in the same ways that other graded potentials do. 19. How are action potentials initiated at the muscle end plate? What is the ratio of' the number of muscle action potentials to motor neuron action potentials (output: input)? Action potentials are initiated in the region of the muscle end plate when the membrane is depolarized by the electrotonically spreading EPP.The ratio of the number of muscle action potentials to motor neuron action potentials (output: input) is 1:1. 19. What are chemically gated ion channels? Give an example. How do such channels differ from voltage-gated channels? Chemically-gated i on channels are those channels which open only in response to the binding of a chemical neurotransmitter, hormone or other chemicals and not in response to membrane depolarization as voltage-gated channels do. The channel associated with the ACh receptor is a chemically-gated ion channel: 26.Compare and contrast the characteristics of chemical and electrical synaptic transmission. Electrical synaptic transmission is mediated by gap junctions. The gap junctions provide a pathway for cytoplasmic continuity. As a result, a depolarization (or hyperpolarization) produced in the presynaptic terminal produces a change in potential in the postsynaptic terminal. There is minimal synaptic delay and the transmission can spread bidirectionally. Electrical junctions are found in the nervous system, as well as smooth muscle and cardiac muscle.Chemical synaptic transmission occurs between two cell membranes separated by a synaptic cleft. The presynaptic terminal contains a high concentration of mi tochondria and synaptic vesicles and there is a characteristic thickening of the postsynaptic membrane. Since the neurotransmitter must diffuse across the synaptic cleft and bind to its receptor, there is delay of about 0. 5 – 1 msec between the initiation of an action potential in the presynaptic terminal and a potential change in the postsynaptic terminal. Chemical transmission is generally unidirectional.

Maps in Your Mind Essay

Reasons for Tolman to carry out the study were to demonstrate that complex internal cognitive activity could be studied in rats, not only in humans, and that these mental processes could be studied without the necessity of observing them directly. The theoretical propositions which this research is based on were two 2 modifications to the prevailing view that Tolman proposed. One was that the true nature and complexity of learning could not be fully understood without an examination of the internal mental processes that accompany the observable stimuli and responses. The second was that even though internal cognitive processes could not be directly observed, they could be objectively and scientifically inferred from observable behavior. The method Tolman used were two studies which clearly demonstra6ted his theoretical propositions. The first was called â€Å"The Latent Learning† experiment, where rats were divided into 3 groups. The first of the 3 groups was Group C, control group, which was exposed to a complex maze using the standard procedure of one run through the maze each day with a food reward at the end of the maze. Second was Group N, received no reward, which was exposed to the maze for the same amount of time each day but found no food and received no reward for any behavior in the maze. Last was Group D, received a delayed reward, which was treated exactly like group N for the first 10 days of the study, but then on day 11 and the remainder of the experiment found food at the end of the maze. The results to the first study were that the rats in groups N and D did not learn much of anything about the maze when they were not receiving any reward for running through the maze. Group C rats learned the maze to near-perfection in about two weeks. But rats in Group D had found out a reason to run the maze and that was food. They had learned the maze in about 3 days (day 11 to day 13). The only possible explanation for these findings was that during those 10 days when the rats were wandering around in the maze, they were learning much more about the maze than they were showing. Tolman explained â€Å"Once they knew they were to get food, they demonstrated that during the preceding non-reward trials, they had learned where many of the blinds were. They had been building up a map and could utilize it as soon as they were motivated to do so.† Now the second study was called â€Å"Spatial Orientation† experiment. This experiment was designed to show that rats trained in a maze actually know the location of the food reward relative to their starting position even if the elements of the maze are changed, or even removed. First rats learned to run the simple maze, where they entered the maze at the start, then run across a round table and into the path leading to the food at the end. This was a relatively simple maze and no problem for the rats and learned it to near perfection in 12 trials. The maze was changed into a sunburst pattern, now when the rats tried their usual rout they found it blocked and returned to the round table. There the rats had a choice of 12 possible alternate paths to try to get to where the food had been in the previous maze. Results for the second study showed that the rats had frequently chose path 6, which ran about 4 inches from where the food had been placed in the previous maze. Here, Tolman was expanding his theory beyond the notion that rats, and potentially other organisms including humans, produce cognitive maps of the route from point A to point Z. He was demonstrating that the maps that are produced are not mere strip maps represented as A to B to C and so on, to Z, but are much broader, comprehensive or conceptual maps that give organisms a cognitive lay of the land. The significance of Tolman’s study was that Tolman theorized that comprehensive maps of our social environment are advantageous to humans, while narrow; strip like maps can lead to negative human conditions such as mental illness or prejudice and discrimination. His reasoning was based on findings related to the studies described earlier indicating that when rats were over motivated or over frustrated they tended to develop very narrow maps and were less likely to acquire the comprehensive cognitive mapping skills of the rats described in his studies.